Life tables also are used to study population growth. The average number of offspring left by a female at each age together with the proportion of individuals surviving to each age can be used to evaluate the rate at which the size of the population changes over time. These rates are used by demographers and population ecologists to estimate population growth and to evaluate the effects of conservation efforts on endangered species.
The average number of offspring that a female produces during her lifetime is called the net reproductive rate (R0). If all females survived to the oldest possible age for that population, the net reproductive rate would simply be the sum of the average number of offspring produced by females at each age. In real populations, however, some females die at every age. The net reproductive rate for a set cohort is obtained by multiplying the proportion of females surviving to each age (lx) by the average number of offspring produced at each age (mx) and then adding the products from all the age groups: R0 = Σlxmx. A net reproductive rate of 1.0 indicates that a population is neither increasing nor decreasing but replacing its numbers exactly. This rate indicates population stability. Any number below 1.0 indicates a decrease in population, while any number above indicates an increase. For example, the net reproductive rate for the Galapagos cactus finch (Geospiza scandens) is 2.101, which means that the population can more than double its size each generation.
| age class** (x) | probability of surviving to age x (lx) | average number of fledgling daughters (mx) | product of survival and reproduction (Σlxmx) |
|---|---|---|---|
| *The values are for the cohort of females born in 1975. | |||
| **Designated in years. | |||
| Source: Adapted from Peter R. Grant and B. Rosemary Grant, "Demography and the Genetically Effective Sizes of Two Populations of Darwin's Finches," Ecology, 73(3), 1992, copyright © 1992 The Ecological Society of America, used by permission. | |||
| 0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 1 | 0.512 | 0.364 | 0.186 |
| 2 | 0.279 | 0.187 | 0.052 |
| 3 | 0.279 | 1.438 | 0.401 |
| 4 | 0.209 | 0.833 | 0.174 |
| 5 | 0.209 | 0.500 | 0.104 |
| 6 | 0.209 | 0.833 | 0.174 |
| 7 | 0.209 | 0.250 | 0.052 |
| 8 | 0.209 | 3.333 | 0.696 |
| 9 | 0.139 | 0.125 | 0.017 |
| 10 | 0.070 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 11 | 0.070 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| 12 | 0.070 | 3.500 | 0.245 |
| 13 | 0 | — | — |
| R0 = 2.101 | |||
| Net reproductive rate = R0 = Σlxmx = 2.101 | |||
| Mean generation time = T = (Σxlxmx)/(R0) = 6.08 years | |||
| Intrinsic rate of natural increase of the population = r = approximately 1nR0 / T = 2.101/6.08 = 0.346 | |||
The other value needed to calculate the rate at which the population can grow is the mean generation time (T). Generation time is the average interval between the birth of an individual and the birth of its offspring. To determine the mean generation time of a population, the age of the individuals (x) is multiplied by the proportion of females surviving to that age (lx) and the average number of offspring left by females at that age (mx). This calculation is performed for each age group, and the values are added together and divided by the net reproductive rate (R0) to yield the result
For example, the mean generation time of the Galapagos cactus finch is 6.08 years.
Another value is used by population biologists to calculate the rate of increase in populations that reproduce within discrete time intervals and possess generations that do not overlap. This is known as the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r), or the Malthusian parameter. Very simply, this rate can be understood as the number of births minus the number of deaths per generation time—in other words, the reproduction rate less the death rate. To derive this value using a life table, the natural logarithm of the net reproductive rate is divided by the mean generation time:
Values above zero indicate that the population is increasing; the higher the value, the faster the growth rate. The intrinsic rate of natural increase can be used to compare growth rates of populations of a species that have different generation times. Some human populations have higher intrinsic rates of natural increase partially because individuals in those groups begin reproducing earlier than those in other groups. Mice have higher intrinsic rates of natural increase than elephants because they reproduce at a much earlier age and have a much shorter mean generation time.
If a population has an intrinsic rate of natural increase of zero, then it is said to have a stable age distribution and neither grows nor declines in numbers. A growing population has more individuals in the lower age classes than does a stable population, and a declining population has more individuals in the older age classes than does a stable population (see population: Population composition). Many human populations are currently undergoing population increase, far exceeding a stable age distribution. Although the global human population has increased almost continuously throughout history, it has skyrocketed since the Industrial Revolution, primarily because of a drop in death rates. No other species has shown such sustained growth.
| species | intrinsic rate of increase (r) |
|---|---|
| *Values above zero indicate that the population is increasing. The higher the value of r, the faster the intrinsic growth rate of the population. | |
| Source: Adapted from Robert E. Ricklefs, The Economy of Nature, 3rd edition, copyright © 1993 by W.H. Freeman & Company, used with permission. | |
| elephant seal | 0.091 |
| ring-necked pheasant | 1.02 |
| field vole | 3.18 |
| flour beetle | 23 |
| water flea | 69 |
Regulation of populations
Limits to population growth
Exponential and geometric population growth
In an ideal environment, one that has no limiting factors, populations grow at a geometric rate or an exponential rate. Human populations, in which individuals live and reproduce for many years and in which reproduction is distributed throughout the year, grow exponentially. Exponential population growth can be determined by dividing the change in population size (ΔN) by the time interval (Δt) for a certain population size (N):
The growth curve of these populations is smooth and becomes increasingly steeper over time. The steepness of the curve depends on the intrinsic rate of natural increase for the population. Human population growth has been exponential since the beginning of the 20th century. Much concern exists about the impact this growth will have, not only on the environment but on humans as well. The World Bank projection for human population growth predicts that the human population will grow from 6.8 billion in 2010 to nearly 10 billion in 2050. That estimate could be offset by four population-control measures: (1) lower the rate of unwanted births, (2) lower the desired family size, (3) raise the average age at which women begin to bear children, and (4) reduce the number of births below the level that would replace current human populations (e.g., one child per woman).
Insects and plants that live for a single year and reproduce once before dying are examples of organisms whose growth is geometric. In these species a population grows as a series of increasingly steep steps rather than as a smooth curve.
